Social Order and Animal Consciousness :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Social Order and Animal Consciousness There is nothing new about the uncanny abilities of animals. People have noticed them for centuries. Millions of pet owners and pet trainers today have experienced them personally. But at the same time, many people feel they have to deny these abilities or trivialize them. They are ignored by institutional science. Pets are the animals we know best, but their most surprising and intriguing behavior is treated as of no real interest. Why should this be so, and what about the implications of animal consciousness and intelligence through the behavior observed by those with close relations to animals. One reason for institutional science’s lack of interest is a taboo against taking ‘pets’ seriously. This taboo is not confined to scientist but is a result of the split attitudes to animals expressed in our society as a whole. During working hours we commit ourselves to economic progress fueled by science and technology and based on the mechanistic view of life. This view, dating back to the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century, derives form Renà © Descarte’s theory of the universe as a machine. Though the metaphors have changed (from the brain as a hydraulic machine in Descarte’s time), life is still thought of in terms of machinery. Animals and plants are seen as genetically programmed automata. Meanwhile, back at home, we have our pets. Pets are in a different category from other animals. Pet-keeping is confined to the private, or subjective, realm. Experiences with pets are kept out of the real, or objective, world. There is a huge gulf between companion animals, treated as members of the family, and animals in factory farms and research laboratories. Our relationships with our pets are based on different sets of attitudes, on I-thou relationships rather than I-it approach encouraged by science. Whether in the laboratory or in the field, scientific investigators typically try to avoid emotional connections with the animals they are investigating. They aspire to a detached objectivity. They would therefore be unlikely to encounter the kinds of behavior and apparent consciousness that depend on the close attachment between animals and people. In this realm, animal trainers and pet owners are generally far more knowledgeable and experienced than professional researchers on animal behavior- unless they happen to be pet owners themselves. Consciousness has been found to be one of the hardest things to define and study. The textbook definition of "Consciousness" is the full knowledge of what is in one’s own mind; awareness.

Compare Darwin’s Theory of Evolution to Lamarck’s Essay

There have been many theories explaining evolution. Two of the most well known of these are the Lamarckian theory, which was mostly believed before the Darwinian theory, which is the theory which is believed to have the highest probability of it being the case. In Lamarck’s theory of evolution, he stated that an organism was able to pass on required traits to their offspring. This theory is commonly shown through the giraffe’s evolution to having longer legs and a longer neck. According to Lamarck’s theory, during a bad season when all the vegetation in lower areas (easily reachable by the giraffe with the shorter neck and legs) had gone, the giraffes were forced to stretch their necks, to reach for food on a higher level. These giraffes would then have longer necks and would pass this trait of having a longer neck to their offspring. Lamarck’s theory then states that over time, each generation will pass on their traits of having a longer neck than the previous generation, accounting for the evolution of the giraffe from being an animal with a shorter neck and legs, to one seen today with its long neck and legs. Darwin’s theory relied on a process of natural selection. In his theory, at the start there would have been many giraffes of varying heights, which would be so due to the variations in organisms through the process of sexual reproduction. Darwin stated that all life competes in a struggle to exist. Therefore, during a dry season when there is not as much nutrition available on lower levels for the shorter giraffes, the giraffe’s that are more likely to survive are the ones with the longer necks and legs. The giraffes with the shorter necks and legs would die, disabling them to pass on their genes for the shorter legs and necks, resulting in a new generation of longer necked and legged giraffes. These theories can also be shown using other animals such as the horse. The ancestors of horse were once much smaller than the modern day horse. They had four toes on the front legs and three on the back. These toes were padded so they allowed the horse to easily move through wet ground. As the horse moved out of the forest and swamp areas to the plains its head, neck and legs became longer, allowing faster movement and it adjusted to standing  on only one toe. Lamarck would have said that this change was from the horse changing its traits to match its environment. The horse would have had to struggle to run faster to escape from predators when out in the open, and therefore developed a stronger, body to cope with the need for speed. Darwin’s theory would of course differ to this, saying that the horses that survived were the ones, which were able to run faster. These would have been the horses with the longer legs, and so the genes for the horses with the longer legs would be passed on to the next generations. These theories have been widely believed to be the explanation for the varying species of animals on the earth. It is well known now that the Lamarckian theory is not possible, and therefore the Darwinian theory is the explanation that is believed to be the means of evolution. This, however has not yet been proven, however the probability is very great.

Hobbes and Locke Social Contract Theory Essay

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are two of the most influential political philosophers of the modern age. Their ideas on political philosophy, among other ideas, have helped shaped the Western World, as we know it. One of the most important theories that the two have both discussed, and written in detail on, is the idea of the social contract. Social Contract Theory is the view that moral and/or political duties depend on a contract that leads to the formation of a civil society. Thomas Hobbes was the first person to come up with the idea of a social contract in his text, Leviathan. As with any concept in history, other political philosophers have used Hobbes’ theory as a stepping-stone. One of those men is John Locke, who presents a very different account of how it is civil society is formed. Although both men have very different accounts on the social contract notion, there are some similarities between the two. Before putting pen to paper Hobbes had a front row seat to a quintessential moment in early English history—the English Civil War. The war was a dispute between King Charles I and his followers, the Monarchists and the Parliamentarians. The Monarchists preferred the traditional authority of the king, while the Parliamentarians demanded more power for Parliament, England’s quasi-democratic institution. Hobbes is somewhere in between the two groups with his own set of views. Hobbes believed that political authority is based on the self-interest of the members of the society, all of who are considered equal. He argued that no single individual had the power to rule over the rest. He also backed the conservative point of view that the sovereign must have absolute authority in order for society to last without disruption. It is in the rejection of the Monarchist point of view, that Hobbes and Locke find their first similarity. Both authors sought out to refute the positions presented by Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha, regarding the issue of the Divine Right of Kings. Filmer believed that God gave absolute authority to the king. Since God gives the power to the king, political society focused on obeying God unconditionally. Although Hobbes did agree that it was necessary for a king to have absolute authority in order to keep the people in line, he believed that authority came from the people living in the community and not God. Locke’s most influential political writings come from his Two Treatises On Government. His First Treatise is focused almost entirely on rejecting Filmer’s theory. Locke is in line with Hobbes in his belief that political authority comes from the consent of the governed. Along with this similarity, both men also agree on the idea that those people in a State of Nature will willingly consent to coming together to form a political society. They also agree on the belief that people would live in fear of each other regardless of their ability to use reason. Human nature allows men to be selfish. All people have the natural right to defend their own life, liberty, health and property. This fear is what leads many people to come together and form a state so that there would be a central authority to protect their life, liberty, health and property of all people within society. Along with creating the outline for the social contract theory, Hobbes was also a major contribution to the idea of the State of Nature, a hypothetical situation used to show how people lived before the establishment of society. In the State of Nature, life was â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,† characterized by self-interest and the absence of rights and laws (Hobbes 89). Hobbes believed that man was fundamentally evil and required a central authority to keep them out of the conditions of the state of nature. Locke, on the other hand, saw individuals as exercising moral limits over their actions. In order to answer the question of why the people should be willing to submit to political authority, Hobbes uses the idea of a State of Nature. This is a completely hypothetical situation through which he imagines what life was like for men before the establishment of civil society. In the State of Nature, men are naturally and entirely self interested, resources are limited and there is no power that forces the people to follow the rules of society. Men are also considered equal to one another in that even the strongest man can be killed in his sleep. There is no ability for men to ensure the satisfaction of their needs and desires as humans, and no prolonged systems of cooperation among men. The state of nature is a state of constant fear and distrust, or as Hobbes puts it â€Å"a state of perpetual and unavoidable war† (Hobbes 90). Based on the previous definition of the State of Nature, it would seem that mankind is doomed for eternity. However, hope is not lost. Using the power of reason, they are able to understand the laws of nature, which lead man out of the state of nature and into civil society. A Law of Nature, (Lex Naturalis), is a Precept, or generall rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved. (Hobbes 91) The first rule of nature is to seek peace when others are also willing to follow in the quest for peace, â€Å"That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre† (Hobbes 92). In the pages leading up to the natural laws, Hobbes describes what it is that drives us to seek peace. â€Å"The Passions that encline men to Peace, are Feare of Death; Desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a Hope by their Industry to obtain them† (Hobbes 90). These are the things that lead people out of the state of nature and into forming a political society. People want protection of their bodies, property, and commodious living. It is through reason that men are led to the construction of a Social Contract, allowing for a life better then in the State of Nature. The social contract is formed through the establishment of two other contracts. The first contract is that they must agree to establish society by renouncing the rights that they had in the State of Nature. The second is that they must choose a single person, or an assembly of people, that will have the authority to enforce the various parts of the contract. The sovereign has the power to punish those who violate the social contract, which leads people to adjust themselves to the rules of their society. In order to understand the purpose of the Social Contract, Hobbes sets forth a definition of a commonwealth, or civil society: And in him consisteth the Essence of the Commonwealth; which (to define it,) is One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence. (Locke 121) Without a common power to exercise force, society would be the same as it was while in the State of Nature. The Social Contract is considered to be the fundamental source within society for all that is good, along with being the force that allows us to live well. On the opposite side of the spectrum is another major figure in political philosophy, Locke. Locke’s views are very different from that of Hobbes, besides the fact that Locke uses the State of Nature concept created by Hobbes. For Locke, the State of Nature is a state of complete and perfect liberty to live the best life possible, while being free from interference from others. We must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man. (Locke 5) In this state of equality no person has any power over any one else—everyone is subjectively equal. â€Å"The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one; and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it that, being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions† (Locke 5). The state of nature is not a state of license, or a state of authority, in that individuals have the ability to do whatever they want. Although this society is pre-government, morals guide the laws of nature. God gives the natural laws to commands and us that we do not harm others, since we are all equal in the eyes of God. For Locke, the State of Nature is more like a state of liberty that allows the people to pursue their own interests free from interference. It is considered a peaceful state because of the natural laws and its restrictions on the people. Hobbes saw the State of Nature as being a state of constant war, a drastic change compared to the views presented by Locke. Although Locke’s state is predominantly peaceful, there is potential for a State of War. According to Locke, the State of War starts between two or more people when one person declares war on the other. This is usually done by stealing something from the other, or trying to make another man a slave. Since there is no central power to mediate the dispute and the laws of nature allow for self-defense, people are allowed to kill anyone that brings force against them. Without a force to mediate, the duration of wars is much longer and more brutal. Political societies form when men come together in the State of Nature, and agree to give up their power to punish those who disobey the laws of nature and give that power to a central authority. It is through this that the people consent to the will of the majority. Through leaving the state of nature and forming a society, the people create a â€Å"one body politic under one government† and are thus subjected to the will of that particular â€Å"body† (Locke 55). The only way for one to become part of society is through our own individual consent, meaning we cannot be forced to join the society. By joining a society, people gain a few things that they lacked in the State of Nature. These aspects consist of laws, a judge to settle disputes regarding laws and most importantly an executive power to enforce the law. The executive power is created for the protection of the people, their property and general well being. It is when this protection is non-existent, or the King becomes a tyrant by acting against the interest of the people, that the contract can be thrown away. It is with this that the process of establishing a social contract can begin once again, and also the power. Both Hobbes and Locke agree on the fact that people living in a state of nature will come together to form a contract amongst themselves, which ultimately leads to the establishment of society. Both Hobbes and Locke also agreed that people living in a state of nature would be living in a constant state of fear of one another before society is established. Hobbes has a much darker view of Human Nature, seeing them as inherently evil, while Locke viewed man as being guided by â€Å"rational self-interest† with the ability to self-govern without the Leviathan watching over you. These two figures have helped shape our modern systems of government among many other things.

Evaluation of the Role of the Internet in Higher Education.

An Evaluation of the role of the Internet In higher education. Today ‘s learner exist In a digital age. A wide range of web tools and software Is available and the Internet offers access to apparently endless sources of Information. Pupils as well as students at university have to deal with the technologies if they want to succeed.Pupils in school mostly use the computer for typing essays and looking up information for presentations, whereas students at university need access o the internet to manage their daily university routine, their whole study depends on the internet. Data bases for course and exam registration for instance, to mention just one important fact . Mark Seersucker had good reasons to explore the value of the internet and establish the social network faceable, originally established for students to get in contact with each other.Even tutors use the features of faceable to Interact with their students. The Internet offers completely new possibilities of procedu res to the schools and university systems. Easy registration for Individual chosen courses, blending learning lasses, online shared Information on specific data bases, online tutorials for help and even online exams are current methods which are well known by any student. Learning materials are being digitized and put up on data bases.And the best thing about it is that the internet applications and software you need are for free, once you have got the general equipment. Offerings of online study courses given by so called â€Å"Open Universities† enable students of any age to take study courses and graduate with diplomas. The US increase the choice of different study courses available to students regardless of their location. Another aspect to mention is the better situation for those who has to earn money beside university, to afford high study fees for Instance, since time management Is easier and free.Yet, despite all the positive things and possibilities that are opened up by the Internet, there are always some critical aspects. Using Internet meaner at flirts having all the equipment and extras you need and second having the skills to use it at all. Very often it is taken for granted that all students possess equal competence with technology but that's not the case. Some students are even forced to Join social networks against their good will.Since internet based education will be the future it is necessary to teach pupils how to use the internet, let them know about the dangers and convey the competence of evaluating internet sources. M. Len. University 2. 0 – An Evaluation of the role of the internet in higher education. Today's learner exist in a digital age. A wide range of web tools and software is available and the internet offers access to apparently endless sources of information. Each other. Even tutors use the features of faceable to interact with their students.The internet offers completely new possibilities of procedures to the schools and university systems. Easy registration for individual chosen courses, blending learning classes, online shared information on specific data bases, online tutorials for help study fees for instance, since time management is easier and free. Yet, despite all the positive things and possibilities that are opened up by the internet, there are always some critical aspects. Using internet meaner at first having technology but that ‘s not the case. Some students are even forced to Join social

Intellectual Autobiography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Intellectual Autobiography - Essay Example From this discussion it is clear that as well, mother taught the reporter that he could develop intellectually through questioning what he never understood, but it sometimes never worked for people who never liked being questioned. The author had to do, experiment, copy, talk, listen, play and experience as a child in the attempt of enhancing his intellectual development. His mother told him as a child that sometimes trial and error could make the author develop intellectually when doing things he was not sure of. He remember mother teaching him to speak Chinese as a little child as way of boosting his communication skills with friends and everybody heI interacted with. She as well taught the reporter on using his mind to organize his thinking in the attempt of understanding the world around him.This essay stresses that the reporter came to realize that mother wanted him to develop in some specific areas that include learning to read, learning to speak, learning to solve problems and making decisions of his own. He had to do several things to order to boost his intellectual development such as identifying a problem by himself, working out a solution and predicting what may happen after the author decided on the solution. In addition, he came to realize that crying sometimes serves as a way of taking bitterness and sadness away from our minds. He can reflect on times he used to cry when he was a child and he could feel the pain go away.  

Automated data reconciliation of the clinical and safety databases Thesis

Automated data reconciliation of the clinical and safety databases - Thesis Example It saves time, and more importantly, gets rid of possible discrepancies between databases. Whenever discrepancies are possible, it necessitates extra quality assurance steps for resolving mismatches (Zhengwu Lu, & Lu, Zhengwu, 2009). Serious Adverse Event, SAE, and Adverse Event, AE, reconciliation compares specific data between two databases; a clinical database and a safety database. A clinical database defined as s closed system while a safety database as an open system. A clinical database can review data for only a short time period that is lasting of the trial, hence defined as closed. A safety database on the other hand, is an open system due to its continuous reception of new SAEs or updates of SAEs that already exist concerning any clinical trials even when they are locked (Van et al 2012). Data management performs the task of SAE and AE reconciliation. Two departments are normally involved, the pharmacovigilance and drug safety, and clinical data science. During the data reconciliation, SAE is collected in the safety database and in the clinical database. Data cleaning takes place according to the specifications of data validation (Dwivedi & IGI Global, 2009). SAE reconciliation is performed continually between first patient first visit, FPFV, and last patient last visit, LPLV. The reason for such timely performances provides data that is reliable and trustworthy, that is of greatly useful in decision-making processes on a drug’s safety profile and successive trial design. It also ensures consistency in reporting to health authorities regarding individual Safety reports, New Drug Application, and the annual Investigational New Drug Update (Trasi, 1994). The skill set accessible in the data management section, many additional things can be done. The interior talents of the section are not fully utilized. It is not fulfilling for persons and the organization. The prospects and the demands are there.

Measuring Bank Liquidity Using Publicly Available Information Assignment

Measuring Bank Liquidity Using Publicly Available Information - Assignment Example In comparison to savings banks in Germany, big commercial banks have a volatile return on equity. In the UK, Barclays, HSBC, RBS, and Lloyds are the big commercial banks that dominate the market thereby causing limited competition. However, in the US, financial systems are market-based and thus financed from the issue of securities. Single factor sensitivity analysis is used to measures changes in the portfolio in relation to interest rates, share prices, and exchange rate while scenario analysis uses simulation to determine risk (Drehmann and Nikolaou 2010, 50). Liquidity risk will indicate a bank’s ability to meet short-term and long-term liabilities for going concern purpose. Higher proportions of short-term debts will indicate a higher liquidity risk. Such banks will be subjected to a higher minimum capital requirement by the regulatory authority. The regulatory capital is then linked to the riskiness of its asset portfolio. To evaluate liquidity both on and off-balance sheet items can be added and weighted to evaluate the correct value of the risk-adjusted assets. Tier 1 capital will entail retained earnings, equity, and reserves while tier 2 capitals will compose revaluated items, unrecognized reserves, and gains on securities. Concentration measurement gives a clear picture of the competitiveness of a bank in the international banking industry. The indices used for measurement are the Herfindahl-Hirschman index and the Gini coefficient. Both the Herfindahl and Concentration ratio methods take into account the largest institutions in account when determining their values. Structure-conduct-performance analysis deals with the concentration of firms in the market, individual conduct of firms and profitability. It is evidenced that there is a statistical econometric correlation between the measure of market structure in the banking industry and profitability. Therefore, the market share of the international bank will indicate its ability to mitigate liquidity.