Spirituality in Health Care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Spirituality in Health Care - Essay Example As a means of understanding this to a more effective degree, the following analysis will discuss the role that spirituality plays in helping to address this primary task. As such, for purposes of this analysis, the author will focus specifically upon the realm of the way in which spirituality can play a role in attending to the needs of the patient, the way in which a clear delineation between a given set of beliefs and/or proselytize nation must be separated from spirituality, and the innate importance of being continually cognizant and aware/appreciative of different beliefs and the different multicultural approaches to spirituality that the patients might have. Only thorough exemplification and examination of these topics will give more effective understanding of how spirituality can be engaged within the realm of healthcare provision. The following analysis will provide a brief introduction into the topic as well as discussing the way in which three separate faiths integrate with a comparative approach to healthcare. As such, the three faiths which will be referenced are as follows: Buddhist, Shinto, and Baha’i. ... nderstood that spirituality is still a very delicate topic due to the fact that it does not exist, nor is represented, categorically among each and every patient that seeks a level of treatment (Reimer-Kirkham et al. 203). Instead, spirituality is a highly personal component of an individual’s worldview. As such, it is the ultimate role of the healthcare provider to be cognizant of this and not to seek to foster any particular type of approach to spirituality. Instead, merely listening and being aware of any needs/beliefs that the patient might represent to the healthcare provider is a preliminary and essential task. In this way, the first faith to be discussed, Buddhism, it must be understood that the Buddhist approach to healthcare provision is ultimately quite depressing with regards to the way in which care and treatment can be provided. From the Buddhist interpretation, even the highest form of care can only be viewed from the standpoint that death can merely be delayed a nd suffering itself should not necessarily be sought to be averted in and of itself due to the fact that it has an innate potential for purification and the ability to allow the individual to come to a greater appreciation for life and an escalation towards the state of nirvana. All of this of course springs from the understanding that Buddhism holds as a tacit truth that suffering is a part of life and as such should be accepted without actively seeking to diminish it. With that being said, it is of vital importance that healthcare provider is not a means anyway, or at any time, to seek to promote a particular worldview or proselytize their own belief system to the patient. This is of course due to the fact that this represents a clear breach of professionalism and an overstepping of the

Free Vibration Of A Cantilever Objective

Free Vibration Of A Cantilever Objective The purpose of this experiment is to determine the natural frequency of a cantilever beam study both undamped and damped free vibration motion of a cantilever beam. Vibration is the periodic motion of a body or system of connected bodies displaced from a position of equilibrium. In general, there are two types of vibration, free and forced. Free vibration is maintained by gravitational or elastic restoring force. Forced vibration is caused by an external periodic or intermittent force applied to the system. Both of these types of vibration may be either damped or undamped. Undamped vibrations can continue indefinitely because frictional effects are neglected in the analysis. Basically, if a system that is subjected to an initial disturbance and is left to vibrate on its own, the subsequent vibration is known as the free vibration. Vibrations without damping would result in a continuous vibration of the particular oscillatory body. As a matter of fact, it will produce a displacement-time graph of such nature as shown in the following figure. This graph is commonly referred to as the simple harmonic motion. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co mmons/4/44/Simple_harmonic_motion.png Figure 1: Simple Harmonic Motion (Displacement-Time Graph) However, in reality, just as with many other scientific theories, this is impossible because friction and other forces are present both internally and externally. As the system is subjected to these forces, this phenomena is called damping. The principle effect of damping is to reduce the amplitude of an oscillation, not to change its frequency. So, the graph of the amplitude of a normal damped oscillation might look like the following: http://www.efunda.com/formulae/vibrations/sdof_images/SDOF_UnderDamped_Response.gif Figure 2: Graph of Damped Oscillation (Displacement-Time Graph) Apparatus and Materials: 1. Cantilever beam apparatus -Modulus of elasticity of aluminium(E) : 70GPa -Dimension of the cantilever beam : 927mm (L) ÃÆ'- 19.09mm (W) ÃÆ'- 6.35mm (H) -Mass of the cantilever beam : 292.59g Mass of the damper : 122 g 2. Strain gauge 3. Strain recorder 4. Viscous damper Experimental Procedures: Figure 3: Experiment Setup without Viscous Damper Figure 4: Experiment Setup with Viscous Damper The computer and the strain recorder were switched on. The strain recorder application software was started by double clicking on the DC104REng shortcut icon on the computer desktop. The experiment setup was shown in Figure 3. The operation of the strain recorder and the recorder application software were referred to the operational manual. The viscous damper was removed if it was attached to the beam. The beam was held and displaced by, ymax, -20mm, -15mm, -10m, -5mm, 0, 5mm, 10mm, 15mm,and 20mm. The strain recorder reading for each displacement value from the Numerical Monitor screen of the application software was recorded manually. The relationship of the displacement (of the free end of the beam) and the strain recorder reading was obtained by plotting an appropriate graph using a spreadsheet. The beam is displaced by 30mm and the beam is left to vibrate on its own. The strain recorder reading was recorded by clicking on the Play and Stop button. The recorded file was retrieved by clicking on the Read USB button. The graph of the beam displacement versus time, t was plotted. The experiment was repeated by using beam displacement of 50mm. The viscous damper was connected as shown in Figure 3. Steps 7 and 10 were repeated by using beam displacement of 30mm and 50mm respectively. a) Theoretical Calculations As given in the experiment: Modulus of elasticity of aluminium,E = 70 GPa Length of the cantilever beam, L = 0.927m Width of the cantilever beam,b = 0.019m Thickness of the cantilever beam, h = 0.006m Mass of the cantilever beam, mcantilever = 0.293 kg Mass of the damper, mdamper = 0.122 kg b) Experimental Results and Calculations Free Vibration of Cantilever Beam at 30mm Displacement Natural Circular Frequency of Beam with Viscous Damper, The free vibration of the theoretical natural frequency of the cantilever beam in this experiment is 5.75Hz while the experimental natural frequency of the cantilever beam is 6.25Hz for amplitude of 30mm and 6.25Hz for amplitude of 50mm. The viscously damped vibration of the theoretical natural frequency of the cantilever beam is 3.45Hz and the experimental natural frequency of the cantilever beam for amplitude of 30mm and 50mm are 3.57Hz and 3.57Hz. Percentage error, % x 100% Free Vibration of Cantilever Beam at 30mm Displacement Percentage error, %= x 100% =8.70% Free Vibration of Cantilever Beam at 50mm Displacement Percentage error, %= x 100% =8.70% Viscously Damped Vibration of Cantilever Beam at 30mm Displacement Percentage error, %= x 100% =3.48% Viscously Damped Vibration of Cantilever Beam at 50mm Displacement Percentage error, %= x 100% =3.48% In this experiment, it is calculated that the percentage error for the free vibration is both 8.70% for 30mm and 50mm. For the viciously damped vibration, the percentage error for the 30mm and 50mm were both 3.48%. The results of the experiment were slightly inaccurate. This may be caused by the external force which is the air resistance as the beam oscillates. Another factor is caused by parallax error which occurred during the measuring of displacement before the beam was released as our eye level was not perpendicular to the scale of the metre rule. When the beam is released, it slightly hit the bottom of the container which decreases the original force released drastically which affects the amplitude of oscillation. Furthermore, the Modulus of Elasticity(Youngs Modulus) was given, which might not be accurate. All these source of error may affect the results of the experiment to be inaccurate. The results of the experiment can be improved by measuring the Modulus of Elasticity. Using a deeper container would also avoid the damper to hit the bottom of the container. Furthermore, the experiment can be done in a vacuum box to avoid air resistance. Eye level should be adjusted until it is perpendicular to the metre rule scale. This steps can increase the accuracy of the results. The damped period, damped natural frequency and the damping ratio of the system of free vibration is. When the amplitude is 30mm or 50mm for both cases, they have the same damped period, damped natural frequency and damped ratio. The percentage error for the free vibration of 30mm and 50mm were both 8.70% while for the viciously damped of 30mm and 50mm were both 3.48%. This indicates that the difference in amplitudes do not affect the frequency of the oscillation. From the general equation of frequency : , where c=speed of wave ÃŽÂ »= wavelength This formula proves that amplitude or displacement does not affect the frequency of the oscillation. If the strain gauge is mounted on the other end of the cantilever beam, the results would be not accurate as the gauge is very sensitive to changes. At the other end, there is not much difference in the change of length which affects the strain. In Figure 3, the strain can be detected more easily as the change in length is very obvious. This is because when the free end is free to vibrates, the vibration will be strong but the compression and tension that results on the surface of pressure sensor is not that strong. Conclusion : The theoretical natural frequency , for this experiment is 5.75Hz for free vibration cantilever. The value of both 30mm and 50mm frequency obtained were 6.25Hz which have percentage error of 8.70%. Whereas, the theoretical damped natural frequency , is 3.45 Hz. The value of both 30mm and 50mm frequency obtained were 3.57Hz which have percentage error of 3.48%. Furthermore, the results proves that the displacement does not affect the vibration(frequency) of the oscillation of the cantilever beam.

Martin Luther King Jr. :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the Birmingham, Alabama newspaper published â€Å"The Public Statement by Eight Alabama Clergymen† calling Martin Luther King Jr.’s activities â€Å"unwise and untimely,† King wrote a response back from jail arguing each point the clergymen had made in their â€Å"Public Statement.† In the â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† King points out that he is not an outsider since the people of Birmingham invited him and that since they are all within the United States, nobody should be even considered an outsider. Being a fighter of injustice, King says, he sought to negotiate with the white community of Birmingham, but they refused to comply. Then, he illustrates to them that the tension amongst the groups is many times good because it leads to action and negotiation. He further explains that calling the actions of Negroes â€Å"unwise and untimely† is denying them justice, which they have been waiting for too long. Moreo ver, King explains that laws can be just and unjust, and that he will only obey just laws that agree with the moral code and disobey laws that do not unlike the white churches, which permit prejudice and hate even though they should preach brotherhood and love. Lastly, King points out that Negroes will win their freedom in the end because it is their right and God’s will. To argue his points in the â€Å"Letter† King uses each of the three rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos. In this essay, I will try to prove that one appeal is more effective than the rest, but first in order to help one understand what these appeals mean, I will use Arthur Quinn’s definitions of what the three appeals entail. The first appeal, the ethos, tries to persuade an audience to agree with an argument by using the reputation and character of the speaker or writer. For instance, a well-liked political leader might hold a strong ethos in the eyes of his constituents, and therefore his opinions on issues might convince his constituents to hold the same opinions whether or not they know anything about the issue. In contrast, the pathos appeal attempts to persuade an audience by targeting their emotions in attempt to gain their sympathy for the argument. An example of this appeal can be seen in TV commercials fundraising money for impoverished children. The final appeal, the logos, attempts to persuade an audience using logic and good reasoning.

Analysis of two brands of commercial Bleaches Essay

Analysis of Two Brands of Commercial Bleaches Objective To determine the concentration of sodium chlorate(I) (NaClO) in two commercial bleaches and compare the two bleaches on both concentration and price. Procedures 1. 10. 0 cm3 of the bleach â€Å"KAO† was pipetted into a clean 250 cm3 volumetric flask. It was made up to the mark using deionized water. 2. 25. 0 cm3 of the diluted solution was pipetted into a conical flask. 3. 10 cm3 of 1 M potassium iodide solution and 10 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid was added into the conical flask also. 4. The mixture in the conical flask was titrated against the 0. 0992 M sodium thiosulphate solution. 5. Three drops of freshly prepared starch indicator are added into the conical flask when the reaction mixture turned pale yellow . 6. The mixture was titrated to the end-point. 7. At the end point, the solution turned from dark blue to colourless. 8. Steps (1) to (7) were repeated with another bleach â€Å"LION† Results Concentration of standard sodium thiosulphate solution : 0. 0992M Brand 1 Trade Name : KAO Bleach Price : $7. 33per dm3 ($11/1500mL). Trial 1 2 Final burette reading / cm311. 90 23. 40 35. 00 Initial burette reading / cm3 0. 20 11. 90 23. 40 Volume of Na2S2O3 / cm3 11. 70 11. 50 11. 60 Brand 2 Trade Name : LION Price : $6. 67per dm3 ($10/1500mL) Trial 1 2 Final burette reading / cm3 14. 60 28. 70 42. 80 Initial burette reading / cm3 0. 50 14. 60 28. 70 Volume of Na2S2O3 / cm3 14. 10 14. 10 14. 10 Questions 1. For each brand, calculate (a) the amount of the active ingredient available in g dm-3. (b) the cost per gram of this compound. (c) 1a) For KAO Bleach, Averge volume of sodium thiosulphate solution used=(11. 5+11. 6)/2=11. 55cm3?no. of mole of S2O32-=(11. 55/1000)(0. 0992) =0. 00114576mol. ?no. of mole of I2 =(no. of mole of S2O32- )/2 =0. 00057288mol ?no. of mole of OCl- in10 cm3 solution = no. of mole of I2 x10 =0. 00057288Ãâ€"10 =0. 0057288mol ? Mass of OCl- contained in 10 cm3 solution=0. 0057288x(16+35. 45) =0. 29474676g ?Concentration of OCl- (active ingredient available) =0. 29474676/(10/1000)=29. 47gdm-3 For LION Bleach, Averge volume of sodium thiosulphate solution used=(14. 1+14. 1)/2=14. 10cm3 ?no. of mole of S2O32-=(14. 10/1000)(0. 0992) =0. 00139872mol. ?no. of mole of I2 =(no.of mole of S2O32- )/2 =0. 00069936mol ?no. of mole of OCl- in10 cm3 solution = no. of mole of I2 x10 =0. 00069936Ãâ€"10 =0. 0069936mol ? Mass of OCl- contained in 10 cm3 solution=0. 0069936x(16+35. 45) =0. 35982072g ?Concentration of OCl- (active ingredient available) =0. 35982072/(10/1000)=35. 98gdm-3 1b)For KAO Bleach, Cost per one gram of OCl- = 11 /[29. 474676x(1500/1000)] =$0. 277/g For LION Bleach, Cost per one gram of OCl- = 10 /[35. 982072x(1500/1000)] =$0. 185/g 2. Based on the calculated results, decide which of the two brands of bleach is a better buy. When compring the costs per one gram of OCl- of KAO(0. 277/g) and LION($0. 185/g), as we can pay a lower price ($0. 185)to buy the same weight of active ingredient (OCl- ) in LION bleach, LION bleach is a better buy. 3. Explain why potassium iodide and sulphuric acid must be in excess. ClO-(aq) + 2I-(aq) + 2H+(aq) i I2(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl-(aq) From the equation above, iodide ions and hydrogen ions react with Hypochlorite ions to form iodine ,water and chloride ions. To determine the actual number of mole of ClO- ,all ClO- ions sholud react to give iodine. KI (I-) and H2SO4 (H+) must be in excess to ensure all ClO- has been converted into Cl- ions. Then the number of mole of I2 produced is calculated by titrating against sodium thiosulphate and hence the number of mole of ClO- ions can be calculated by ratio: No. of moles of ClO- = No. of moles of I2 In other words, excess potassium iodide and sulphuric acid are used for ensuring all ClO- ions are reacted react to give iodine. Moreover,dilute sulphuric acid is added to increase the rate of reaction. If KI and H2SO4 are not in excess, some of the ClO- ions are not converted into Cl- . Consequently the calculated number of mole of ClO- ions present would be smaller than the actual one since the number of mole of ClO- ions which are not converted into Cl- are not taken into account. 4. Bleaching solution may deteriorate for two main reasons. One is the attack by carbon dioxide in air according to the equation: 2ClO-(aq) + CO2(aq) i CO32-(aq) + Cl2(aq) What is the other possible reason? Under normal condition,Hypochlorite ions decompose to give oxygen and chloride ions. Ionic equation: ClO-(aq) i O2(g) + 2Cl-(aq) Chemical equation: NaClO(aq) i O2(g) + 2NaCl(aq). The rate of the reaction above can been increased at high temperature or under sunlight. When sodium hypochlorite is heated or evaporated, sodium chlorate and sodium chloride will be formed. Chemical equation: 3 NaOCl(aq) i NaClO3 (aq)+ 2 NaCl(aq) 5. The starch indicator should not be added too early. Why? Starch is often used in chemistry as an indicator for redox titrations where iodine is present as starch forms a very dark blue-black complex with iodine. Moreover,the indicator is not affected by the presence of iodide (I-). In order for the the starch solution to change colour, both starch and iodide must be present. Starch forms an unstable complex which is blue coloured in low concentrations of iodine. However, this complex is in high concentrations of iodine . If starch solution is added too early, the conical flask still contains high concentration of iodine. As a result, highly stable complex is formed,the starch indicator then cannot be decolourised and the complex will spoil the reaction medium. Consequently, the titration cannot continue. Therefore the iodine must be diluted first with the titrant ,sodium thiosulphate to ensure no higly stable complex is formed. After that the starch can be added.

Climate Change And Economic Policy

Climate change is defined as â€Å"Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods†(Bruno and Mehmet 2010). Modern methods of production create greenhouse gasses as a negative externality via the market failure and government intervention is needed to rectify the situation. Climate change is an issue for the Australian government as it needs to intervene to correct the market failure caused by the free markets inability to provide property rights to mitigate damages caused by the negative externality. (Calhoun 2010) The greenhouse gas externality is a by-product of the production of goods and services via the over-production of emissions. Dr Peter John Wood argues that† climate change is an indisputable threat† and on that basis, as well as the world stage Australia has taken the reins in acting upon climate change. An externality is defined as† are the unintended consequence of one economic agent’s economic activity that affect another agent’s economic activity, but which are not adequately priced through the market (Sonia and Jeff 2011)†. This is also known as market failure and requires government intervention to be able to rectify the problem due to a lack of property rights and correct mitigation for parties involved with the transaction. In this case, one form of the market failure is because the cost of CO2 is not factored into the transaction price. The Gillard government continued a legacy that was started with the Howard government back in 2007 that saw a Carbon Emissions Trading scheme take part in the Australian government to tackle Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions (Chris 2011). The Carbon tax was implemented on June 1st 2012 and has been controversial amongst politicians and economists alike according to Clive’s article â€Å"Australia's Carbon Tax: A Sheep in Wolf's Clothing†. The steps taken to implement a policy should be understood first before critiquing from different viewpoints. The four major points of policymaking are: 1. Specify the goals of policy 2. Identify the targets 3. Specify the policy instruments 4. Model the economy linking the instruments to the targets Using this framework, the goal’s of the policy are to mitigate damages caused by the production of greenhouse gasses on the (global) environment on a national scale and decrease the amount of pollution via increasing the price of polluting. The targets of the policy are the agents involved (Firms producing pollution, environment and households) with the transactions. Firms are the largest creators of the pollution and the households are directly affected by price increases, therefore their welfare post-tax needs to be considered in a socially acceptable policy. The policy instruments include subsidies to the households most affected by the increases in prices of amenities as well as the Pigovian Tax on polluting (Energy 2012). Lastly, the model that directly links the economy to the instruments proposed can be shown below. Tax brings the externality into equilibrium with the social cost. The amount of gain to the social benefit is the darker area and is also the taxation revenue collected on behalf of the government. This also decreases output by the difference in Original output-New output. This can also be shown on a Supply and Demand graph. The graph to the right illustrates the effectiveness of the tax on the existing market price and therefore reducing the quantity of pollution emitted. This tax is directly placed on the top 500 polluting firms in Australia which account for the majority of the pollution via production. The Department for Climate Change and Efficient Energy published their â€Å"Forth Assessment Report† outlining that â€Å"There is clear evidence that our climate is changing, largely due to human activities†. One can infer that the government is acting morally and taking partial responsibility for these human activities, hence action for change and mitigation. Market failure is defined as the inability of the market being able to deliver an efficient level of goods and or services (Calhoun 2010). This is an important aspect when determining what aspects of a policy are vital in addressing the issue at hand, because the situation of pollution is a non-Pareto optimal situation due to the negative externalities created in the transaction between agents. The government’s intervention due to the market failing is justified by its role in the G8, Kyoto Protocol and its response to the public on the matter (â€Å"Australia to have leading role in carbon mitigation† 2007). Another reason is that property rights are not defined clearly with the environment, therefore the government intervention to make the Marginal Social Cost equal the Marginal Social Cost via a Pigovian tax, decreasing the amount of negative externality produced (greenhouse gasses).(Bruno and Mehmet 2010) Macro-economically speaking, this issue impacts both Australia’s macroeconomic goal of efficient resource allocation and sustainable economic growth. Due to high public opinion on green alternatives and clean production, changes in consumer preferences will mean that some goods and services provided using traditional fossil fuels or unsustainable methods may be boy-cotted or fall second preference to ‘green goods’(Kathleen 2012) The Efficient resource allocation goal of Australia addresses â€Å"†¦where resources are allocated in the most efficient manner†(Weng 2008). The environment is a common resource and traditionally has not been defined to any specific owner. Firms may utilise the environment (clean air, sunshine and or clean water) as a factor of production, examples may include Personal Trainers or tour guides. With a market failure existing, it renders the goal incomplete as there is an excess of pollution and undersupply of environment as it is a rival good. Either the polluters must reduce their output of pollution or they must mitigate the affected agents. This causes a problem in the regard, whom is affected by the pollution and by how much does the affected agents need to be mitigated for. Sustainable economic growth in the long term is impacted by climate change. Not only will Australia be affected by the hypothesised changes to temperature for standards of living, but the changes may affect agricultural output and goods demanded by countries importing (supporting) clean production methods. Australia, by implementing policy change enables the economy to be in a better position to respond to act with funds allocated via the policy impact (â€Å"Australia: Australia Prepares for Carbon Tax† 2012). Comparing the current Carbon Tax (Clean Energy Bill) to alternatives that have been proposed such as Carbon Trading Schemes and Subsidies for Clean Investment have both advantages and disadvantages (Calhoun 2010). Australia’s Carbon Tax initially is a fixed price of $23 per Metric Tonne of Carbon Dioxide emitted from the top 500 polluting companies in Australia(Harris 2012). This in its simplicity is a Pigovian Tax, which is used to deter consumption/production of a good or service that causes the negative externality. Simultaneously the Indirect tax signals the taxed firms that they should spend investment capital on ways to lower their output of CO2 emissions (Carrie 2011). Pigovian taxes are designed to increase the price of the good that causes the negative externality by the amount that best reflects the cost to society in the production of the good which will internalise the effects of the externality (Carrie 2011). Examples of these in Australian society include the Alco-Pop tax and tobacco tax. In the case of the Carbon Tax, the good being taxed is pollution and the parties being mitigated are the Australian government on behalf of the environment in which it is representing, in effect the environment is gaining property rights in this explanation. The Pigovian tax, when applied will cause a reduction in the level of pollution due to the cost added. This will vary from firm to firm due to the elasticity of the cost to pollute. It is safe to assume that all firms are elastic with pollution expenses; therefore the economics of the tax are sound. Pigovian taxes have been praised for their simplistic approach to combating both losses of competitiveness due to inefficient methods of production and on goods themselves which are non-essential for consumption when viable substitutes are available according to Harris’s economic survey in 2012. Examples include using solar power on mine sites instead of Gas or Coal power. Pigovian Taxes however are not ideal in the case of Carbon Leakage, whereby firms choose to produce their goods offshore in countries that are not yet or not participating in Carbon Reduction. It reduces Australia’s carbon footprint, however the loss of production in Australia mean relative to before the tax, there is a reduction in output. (Dellaware 2011). By contrasting these to alternative methods to combat climate change such as an Emissions Trading Scheme (Cap and Trade) or the Carbon Offset system. All theoretically are able to reduce the level of the negative externality, however they all have different dynamics to each other and need to be applied using the framework aforementioned in the essay. The Cap and Trade system allows for the Coasian Bargaining of the right to emit greenhouse gasses as part of production of a firm. These permits would be of a set supply, and would limit firms to a ‘cap’ of pollution. These would be traded in the open market meaning that the market subject to demand and elasticity by a firm, determines the price of the permit. This would encourage firms to innovate and reduce the number of permits needed to produce, or be more efficient with the given quota of pollution per year.(Kathleen 2012) Advantages of the Cap and Trade system mean that the total level of greenhouse gases are controlled, IE a set amount per year meaning that it is easier to attain goals from the Kyoto Protocol. International trading markets are also proposed and feasible meaning that there is greater competition for permits which leads to more efficiency domestically. Firms that are unable to compete or innovate into cleaner greener methods are either absorbed by larger more efficient and environmentally viable companies or liquidate, meaning less pollution output. Another advantage is that there is little regulation and or further government attention required to maintain the Cap and Trade system. Because the market forces determine prices between firms, the need for a middle man is removed. Comparing this to a Carbon Tax, where constant auditing, monitoring and enforcement is both time consuming and expensive from a tax payers perspective. Comparing the two graphically below show the changes in price and quantity in the strict control of either supply of increase of price. The Carbon tax is indirect, it controls the price movements, which affect the quantity, and the Cap and Trade system controls the supply, which then determines the price. The biggest disadvantage to not controlling the price of pollution as oppose to the quantity is that it does not promote efficient investment on clean alternatives to production and instead causes prices to rise of the permits, allowing larger companies to purchase the right to continue polluting and drive out smaller less profitable companies, provided they can’t sustain operation by selling excess permits to excessive polluters. Graphically, they yield the same result however; Clive argues that the amount of red tape needed to maintain the Cap and Trade System is not viable. Introducing the Carbon Offset scheme, means that carbon offsets are purchased which in turn mitigates the marginal private cost of the firm to equilibrium level. Firms can only pollute according to their offset amount and has been successful in Europe with 5.5 Billion dollars of offsets traded according to Bruno and Mehmet’s paper on Governance and the Carbon impact. Advantages exist in the offset scheme whereby it guarantee’s firms to take positive action/investment due to money spent on offsets directly in the form of buying credits from firms specific for reducing pollution and or investment on re-forestation and cleaner methods of production. Other arguments exist stating that having a Cap of pollution will force in-efficient firms to find the lowest cost method to reduce their pollution. Again, like any alternative to the Carbon Tax, much more bureaucratic procedures, monitoring costs and governing bodies are required to manage such a proposal (Oh 2007). 1. Similarities exist between the two policy options in that both require a base measured level of pollution to which caps and prices can be compared 1. Both systems will generate revenue via the increase of the Marginal Private cost which can be distributed via the governing body. 1. Both systems will require a governing body to standardise and monitor activities to be equitable (International-Emissions-Trading-Association 2011) Using this information, the policies will affect different groups of individuals differently. The Carbon Tax will have some impact on households, but greater on the top 500 firms. Understanding how it will affect each party will enable a better understanding of the Pareto Efficiency concept. Households under the Carbon Tax will be charged more for amenities and certain activities such as air travel. Using the graph below it is clear that electricity is the largest producer of greenhouse gases and will have the largest impact via the tax. increase of costs of using electricity, any household that earns less than 80,000 dollars a year will benefit from subsidies and household assistance packages from the Liberal Government (Energy 2012).Households will also gain in subsidies and other cleaner initiatives from the government via the revenue collected from the tax which will increase their standard of living, proposed by the new energy reforms(Energy 2012). Linking back to Figure 1, the gains in Social Benefit are the largest gains that the households have, which economically speaking should be a new Pareto optimum specific to householders. Firms on the other hand, if subjected to the tax will have an increase in costs relative to the $23 per metric tonne of CO2 emitted. There is also the added cost of administration fees and loss of investment due to higher costs. Other costs that may be included are changes in capital. Pigovian taxes are aimed to have a distortion effect, decreasing the amount of CO2 emitted, changing what firms use to produce and furthermore where future capital investment may be directed (Bruno and Mehmet 2010). Firms from the impact of a Cap and Trade system will be partaking in Coasian Bargaining. This system has been used in the European Union and has shown dramatic decreases in the levels of CO2 by firms (International-Emissions-Trading-Association 2011). Due to the nature of the market, firms will bid and enter a price war against each other that will drive firms to have the lowest operating cost to save on purchasing permits. Firms that do not use the entire permit’s quota are able to bid off their remaining excess to firms whom can afford to pollute, or can’t afford to innovate into cleaner methods of production. Production, if the firm is pollutant dependant will be affected due to a rise in fixed and variable costs and may decrease output (Gilbert 2007). If the firm is not heavily reliant on pollution, it will see increases in its profits due to the revenue gained from trading the permits. The Cap and Trade system promotes production efficiency according to Gilbert Metcalfe’s proposal for a US Cap Swap in those methods that reduce CO2 output cost less via the tariffs placed. The Cap and Trade system from a household’s perspective will be similar to that of the carbon tax, however a time lag may be present due to firms having a time period in which they can allocate their pollution as opposed to an indirect tax. Each policy suggestion from an economic perspective has its own merits and weaknesses and need to be considered when creating a policy that affects both households and firms. The policy must be fair, equitable and efficient to all parties involved. By comparing the implemented Carbon Tax with the feasible alternative, the Cap and Trade system, the different viewpoints of firms and households are understood.

Type I vs. Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing

Type I vs. Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing The statistical practice of hypothesis testing is widespread not only in statistics but also throughout the natural and social sciences. When we conduct a hypothesis test there a couple of things that could go wrong. There are two kinds of errors, which by design cannot be avoided, and we must be aware that these errors exist. The errors are given the quite pedestrian names of type I and type II errors. What are type I and type II errors, and how we distinguish between them?  Briefly: Type I errors happen when we reject a true null hypothesisType II errors happen when we fail to reject a false null hypothesis We will explore more background behind these types of errors with the goal of understanding these statements. Hypothesis Testing The process of hypothesis testing can seem to be quite varied with a multitude of test statistics. But the general process is the same. Hypothesis testing involves the statement of a null hypothesis and the selection of a level of significance. The null hypothesis is either true or false and represents the default claim for a treatment or procedure. For example, when examining the effectiveness of a drug, the null hypothesis would be that the drug has no effect on a disease. After formulating the null hypothesis and choosing a level of significance, we acquire data through observation. Statistical calculations tell us whether or not we should reject the null hypothesis. In an ideal world, we would always reject the null hypothesis when it is false, and we would not reject the null hypothesis when it is indeed true. But there are two other scenarios that are possible, each of which will result in an error. Type I Error The first kind of error that is possible involves the rejection of a null hypothesis that is actually true. This kind of error is called a type I error and is sometimes called an error of the first kind. Type I errors are equivalent to false positives. Let’s go back to the example of a drug being used to treat a disease. If we reject the null hypothesis in this situation, then our claim is that the drug does, in fact, have some effect on a disease. But if the null hypothesis is true, then, in reality, the drug does not combat the disease at all. The drug is falsely claimed to have a positive effect on a disease. Type I errors can be controlled. The value of alpha, which is related to the level of significance that we selected has a direct bearing on type I errors. Alpha is the maximum probability that we have a type I error. For a 95% confidence level, the value of alpha is 0.05. This means that there is a 5% probability that we will reject a true null hypothesis. In the long run, one out of every twenty hypothesis tests that we perform at this level will result in a type I error. Type II Error The other kind of error that is possible occurs when we do not reject a null hypothesis that is false. This sort of error is called a type II error and is also referred to as an error of the second kind. Type II errors are equivalent to false negatives. If we think back again to the scenario in which we are testing a drug, what would a type II error look like? A type II error would occur if we accepted that the drug had no effect on a disease, but in reality, it did. The probability of a type II error is given by the Greek letter beta. This number is related to the power or sensitivity of the hypothesis test, denoted by 1 – beta. How to Avoid Errors Type I and type II errors are part of the process of hypothesis testing. Although the errors cannot be completely eliminated, we can minimize one type of error. Typically when we try to decrease the probability one type of error, the probability for the other type increases. We could decrease the value of alpha from 0.05 to 0.01, corresponding to a 99% level of confidence. However, if everything else remains the same, then the probability of a type II error will nearly always increase. Many times the real world application of our hypothesis test will determine if we are more accepting of type I or type II errors. This will then be used when we design our statistical experiment.

Napoleons Fascism Essays

Napoleons Fascism Essays Napoleons Fascism Essay Napoleons Fascism Essay Mussolini had a darwinistic view on life and the struggle of existence. His definition of fascism greatly represents that view and opens up new ideas of life being a duty to serve specific purposes. Mussolini describes fascism as a rule that does not give the majority the right to regulate itself, it believes in heroism and holiness, the rule of divine leaders. Also, he describes that the majority is not capable of ruling, and that nobles are elected through meeting a degree of courage. He explains that there are extreme inequalities in the general public and that political equality, indefinite progress and happiness are all myths. Mussolini viewed the Fascist party as an â€Å"ethic† state, giving it personality, viewing it as an almost divine power. Lastly, Mussolini states the importance of a strong military and dedicated peoples ready to sacrifice for their nation. He emphasizes how disciplined peoples with a strong sense of duty create a stable and orderly nation. His obsession with war lead to the expansion of mass society and leveled social classes. According to Mussolini, his creation of fascism completely rejects ideas of peace and instead to looks to war and sacrifice as the deciding factor between true nobles and cowards. He states that pacifism is an act of cowardice and that war brings forth all human strength and distinguishes between the weak and the dignified. Mussolini explains that fascism views life as a struggle and conquest, furthering his darwinistic views. Mussolini’s claims to restore regulation and use of propaganda fueled people’s hopes in his leadership and promise of order, even if that meant a war-like order. These promises led to Mussolini’s popularity in the first years of his rule due to the people of Italy who were dissatisfied with the anarchy that surrounded them and seemed to believe in any person who promised a restoration of order. In his definition, Mussolini describes that there are great inequalities in the general public as well as in politics. He states that these inequalities are a sort of necessary evil that distinguish between social classes. He also believes that the inequalities in mankind can never â€Å"be permanently leveled† through processes such as universal suffrage and that such processes shouldn’t be put into place because inequalities are beneficial to society as a whole. Mussolini also states that the war between the classes will not be the leading force behind change but should be seen as a beneficial conflict that may bring about order. Through making statements like this, Mussolini was giving the public his truths instead of fabricating his ideas. Mussolini also used traditional values and appreciation of religious beliefs to keep his people united, rich or poor, peasant or worker. In return for his strong sense of values and understanding what role the church played in education as well as in family policy that he portrayed, Mussolini gained acceptance for his fascist tactics from the church who had prior to criticized his policies. This approval from the church furthered his acceptance and popularity from the general public. Mussolini’s separation of the social classes in fact did the opposite and leveled them in society as well as on the battlefield. In the definition, fascism is described as a rule that represents solely the people of Italy, whom were gaining power and again rising after a downfall. Mussolini explains that a great nation demands discipline as well as a sense of sacrifice and duty. He states in what ways militarized politics are beneficial to a society and how total dedication to ones nation is an absolute necessary in maintaining a powerful state. This is evident in his making criticism of the state a criminal offense which in turn led to his wiping out of any parliamentary opposition. Mussolini’s attacks on newspaper offices and striking workers were brutal yet gave Italians a sense of order in their country. He explains in what ways a Fascist state leaves some freedoms to its people yet maintains a sense of organization and that an undisciplined nation is useless and harms freedom. He also states that the individual is not the deciding factor but the state is. Statements as such may have shown the people of Italy that they were being oppressed, leading to revolution. Mussolini made his militaristic approaches and authoritarian advances look appealing to his people which in turn lead to a sequence of disastrous events following the war. These events included economic downfalls and strikes throughout Europe, racism, and a surge to global imperialism. Mussolini viewed peace as an undesirable illusion and pacifism as an act of cowardice. These views gave rise to his state power and advocates both inside and out of Italy. Mussolini’s first followers were drawn in by his militaristic rule and his promise of a divine like military. His war obsession drew in veterans as well as the unemployed by promising them a sense of nobility through their sacrifice. In his definition, Mussolini explains the importance of an obedient and sacrificial nation, ready to battle for their country. His rejection of ideas like peace and pacifism gave his followers a sense of an orderly nation, which was greatly needed during that time. Mussolini’s explanation of the separation of social classes as a necessity and something that may create change in the nation. For this reason, Mussolini states that the majority is incapable of ruling itself, and that noble rulers among himself will come forth to create an orderly nation.